Biological Error Points

This is what

This is the collection of biology knowledge points organized by Yi’an during high school, accurately speaking, since the senior year. The expression might be somewhat difficult to understand.
Perchance it shall incur the ridicule of the learned masters.
But at least it proves that I have indeed been dialectically negating, sublating.

Colored docx can be downloaded here

Overview

Cloned monkeys do not use in vitro fertilization; it is asexual reproduction.
Embryo splitting belongs to asexual reproduction technology and is performed at the blastocyst stage.
For early embryo culture developing to the blastocyst or morula stage, sex determination can only use the trophoblast.
Bacteriophages do not have RNA.
The incidence of polygenic diseases increases rapidly with age, such as juvenile diabetes.
Gene recombination has two meanings, one in the late phase, one in the early phase.
Plants use Ti plasmids, not E. coli plasmids.
Naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and gibberellin, treating tomato pistil stigmas, result in seedless tomatoes.
What points in is the assimilation amount.
For everything, add a “reasonable” or “pay attention to”.
For genetics questions, pay special attention to consider whether the expression is complete, and if there are omissions of cases where no gametes are produced.
The establishment of facts requires a control group.
In experiments, pay attention to whether a certain range of the variable has been skipped.
For genetics questions, never mistake the dominance/recessiveness of the trait to be calculated, never mistake the phenotype of the randomly mating parents, and pay close attention that some phenotypes might not be given.
Always remember to add a subject before the verb.
When choosing and filling in blanks, be careful not to forget the “nature/property” in “xx nature/property”, read slowly, read carefully.
For page-turning questions, be sure to read the question carefully.
Cannot solve it Careless reading leads to missing conditions; when unable to solve, please read the question over and over again.
One set of experiments cannot have two independent variables.
Answer comprehensively.
When analyzing trends, pay attention to the data at the edges of the chart, and consider cases tending towards infinity.
Don’t read the selection/fill-in options wrong.
Fundamentally, it affects gene expression.
“This experiment proves”: If there is no control group, this option is incorrect; often appears in Streptococcus pneumoniae in vitro transformation.
The question stem might contradict the textbook.
From genotype, chromosome, to gamete, then to genotype, analyze step by step.
Protein relative molecular mass and protein structure are not the same.
Every table has meaning; the real meaning might be inconsistent with what the table looks like.
Pay attention to whether the subject in the modifier is incorrect.
If the quantity of a certain protein does not change, but the phenomenon changes, then it is unrelated to the gene expression of that protein.
The step before statistical data is, obtaining data.
Experimental questions: The answer must cut into the root cause of the question, cutting into the key content in every question stem. The answer must show that you know a lot, not like an elementary school student.
Constructing experimental mice is often to damage a certain target organ to be studied.
Irrelevant variables have an influence on experimental results.
Protein synthesis ≠ processing ≠ maturation. Ribosomes do not process. Hormone secretion ≠ release.
Antagonism: May compete for receptors.
When drawing division images in your mind, draw according to 2n=2, if not necessary otherwise.
To determine the optimal concentration, set a series of concentration gradients, and other necessary variables to determine the required optimal variable.
When the question stem looks very similar to a certain knowledge point, strictly forbid fabricating things out of thin air.
Even if you might have done it before, you must look at it a few more times.
Explaining reasons in genetics questions: Point out the real reason in one sentence with core literacy.
The question stem has no nonsense.
The breakthrough point of a genetic diagram might be on an individual suffering from two diseases; it might be a recessive trait created out of thin air.
Write out the direct purpose and the ultimate purpose.
Perhaps a complete genetic diagram, listed clearly, written plainly, is the master key to solving all genetics questions.
If you don’t know what to add in an experimental question, add an equal amount of physiological saline.
The variables in the experimental comparison groups must be sufficient.
Analyze reasons, closely linked, step by step, detail the result caused by each phenomenon, do not skip.
A series of conditions includes pH, temperature, humidity, nutrients, concentration, treatment time, concentrations of gases like O₂ and CO₂, etc.
Different experiences may conflict with each other; please analyze specifically.

Must pay attention to multiple situations in genetics questions

Must read the question carefully

Not reading carefully leads to missing conditions, making it impossible to solve

Compulsory Book 1

The endoplasmic reticulum consists of membrane sacs and tubular cavities; the Golgi apparatus consists of membrane sacs and vesicles.
Provide ¹⁸O₂; in a short time, the third stage produces H₂¹⁸O, for a long time ** H₂¹⁸O ** participates in the second stage to produce ** C¹⁸O₂ .
At the molecular level, eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells are the same.
To explore the optimal temperature of enzymes, keep them warm separately before mixing. High temperature causes the enzyme structure to change, thereby reducing its activity.
Chlorophyll directly affects ATP and NADPH, thereby directly affecting the reduction of triose phosphate in the Calvin cycle.
Enzymes are preserved at low temperatures; enzyme activity is low at low temperatures, not deactivated.
Active transport does not necessarily use ATP directly; there is a series of NTPs that can be used. Carotene enters cells by diffusion.
The high efficiency of enzymes needs to be compared with inorganic catalysts.
NADH is consumed in the cytosol during the second stage of anaerobic respiration. When energy is transferred to ATP, the vast majority is dissipated.
Type A blood, Type AB blood, red blood cells, carry A antigens.
Young leaves of Hydrilla can be placed directly in a water drop on a slide; do not use high magnification directly, use low magnification first.
The endoplasmic reticulum membrane connects internally with the nuclear membrane and externally with the cell membrane, but does not connect with the Golgi membrane.
Glucose and fructose have the same molecular formula.
Sucrose is composed of glucose and fructose; maltose is two molecules of glucose.
The Golgi apparatus is different in animals and plants; the latter forms the cell wall.
In photosynthesis, when the question marks water with ¹⁸O, it often implies that both CO₂ and H₂O will be marked.
The amount of fixed CO₂ refers to the true photosynthetic rate.
When cells absorb or lose water, water molecules undergo facilitated diffusion, not diffusion.
CO₂ fixation produces C₃.
True photosynthetic rate, maximum.
Using fat as a respiratory substrate**,** releases less CO₂, because there is less O inside.
Low radioactivity is still radioactivity; it is also a qualitative difference.
The boundary of the cell, the cell membrane, not the cell wall.
Most proteins on the membrane can move.
Photosynthesis may still occur even if the net photosynthetic rate is less than zero; chloroplasts produce ATP.
Some cells do not have ribosomes.
The functions of the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes are different because the types and quantities of proteins are different.
Proteins cannot be synthesized inside the cell nucleus.
Photosynthesis producing starch requires the provision of carbon dioxide, otherwise none.
The selective permeability of the plasma membrane is related to both membrane proteins and phospholipid molecules.
Living cells may not all produce enzymes, such as mammalian mature red blood cells. But enzymes are definitely produced by living cells; enzymes do not provide activation energy, but lower activation energy.
Small intestinal villus epithelial cells absorb glucose and amino acids via active transport.
Cover with the cover glass first, then add drops, allowing it to permeate on its own.
The larger the diffusion ratio rather than volume, the higher the efficiency.
Non-reducing sugars: starch, sucrose, cellulose.
Chloroplasts are conducive to observing vacuoles. Young cells have fewer chloroplasts, making them easier to observe.
To observe onion root tip chromosomes, rinse with clear water after dissociation, and ** not after staining with gentian violet .
Enzyme activity is absolutely, absolutely the amount of product generated per unit time per unit enzyme; neither can be missing.
During seed germination, the weight of organic matter decreases, while the types of organic matter and water increase.
Using 95% ethanol solution to study cell water absorption and loss, cells die and remain unchanged; with KNO₃ etc. that can pass freely, they eventually recover.
Crop yield increase lies in the export of photosynthetic products out of the leaves.
Hydrogen ion concentration difference assists sucrose transport; for hydrogen ions, it might also count as active transport.
Insulin passing through the capillary wall requires not only endocytosis but also exocytosis.
Peptide bond count equals amino acids minus peptide chains; molecular weight is average weight times amino acid count minus peptide bond count times 18; minimum oxygen atom count is amino acid count plus peptide chain count; minimum nitrogen atom count is amino acid count.
Both DNA replication and gene expression can form nucleic acid-protein complexes.
The lower epidermis has no chloroplasts and cannot be observed.
Pre-treatment in experiments studying auxin concentration reduces the concentration gradient of the formal experiment, not the error.
Macro-elements in the human body include C, H, O, N, P, Cl, Na, Mg, K, Ca, S; therefore, muscle twitching reflects the importance of macro-elements.
Nucleic acids use carbon chains as the basic skeleton.
The energy of the host can be transferred directly to the parasite without passing through the pathogen.
When plasmolysis reaches 100%, the internal and external solution concentrations are basically equal.
During plasmolysis, also consider the loss of water absorption capacity due to cell death after extreme conditions.
The added inorganic substance may not act as a catalyst. For example, if it deactivates the enzyme, high efficiency cannot be proven at this time.
Prokaryotic cell walls are composed of peptidoglycan; plants, cellulose and pectin; fungal cell walls, chitin.
Transport proteins include carrier proteins that do not penetrate and channel proteins that do penetrate.
The conversion of sugar to CO₂ takes place in two locations.
Trypan blue stains dead cells blue, similar to red ink staining dead cells.
Acidic potassium dichromate is orange under acidic conditions, turns grey-green upon meeting ethanol; bromothymol blue solution turns from blue to green to yellow upon meeting CO₂.
The cytoskeleton enables directional transport of vesicles; in eukaryotic cells, it is composed of protein fibers.
The “hydrogen” produced by the light reaction is contained in NADPH.
The production of [H] is not necessarily all on biological membranes. [H]: 4+20, ATP: 2+2+28. Ethanol fermentation produces 4 ATPs, water generation has 2.
Plasmolysis equilibrium means internal and external solution concentrations are equal. Solution concentration is not the concentration of a specific solute, such as NaCl.
The H of the carboxyl group cannot be traced with radioactive isotopes; it will fall off.
CO₂ decreases, photosynthetic rate decreases; the two are positively correlated.
O₂ produced by the light reaction must first exit the thylakoid membrane.
Nucleic acids are macromolecules and cannot be directly absorbed.
Telomeres and telomerase exist only in eukaryotic cells.
In the field of view, quantity is inversely proportional to volume.
In experiments, isolated chloroplasts measure the true photosynthetic rate.
Polymers and monomers use carbon chains composed of carbon atoms as the basic skeleton.
Microfilaments, as proteins, are related to ribosomes for formation, not centrosomes.
Organic matter generated by photosynthesis is not equal to accumulated organic matter.
Pectin: Golgi apparatus, cell wall. Starch: chloroplast stroma. Sucrose: cytosol.
Chloroplasts increase membrane area by stacking thylakoids.
All channels imply facilitated diffusion.
Chloroplasts synthesize more ATP than mitochondria.
Cytoskeleton is protein fibers. Spindle fibers, spindle body, aster rays are tubulin.
Plants do not have spermatogonia.
Mature plant cells can all undergo plasmolysis; root tip meristem cannot. Recovery occurs when external solutes enter; staining is not required.
Biuret: Cu2+, blue, no heating. Benedict’s: blue, heating. Not colorless.
Separating pigments is not equal to extracting pigments. Biuret cannot monitor amino acids. First add 1ml A to the supernatant, shake, then 4 drops B. Alcohol: rapidly kills cells, fixes division phases, maintains chromosome structural integrity.
Too much 95% ethanol causes pigment bands to be faint.
Mitochondria belong to genetic material in the cytoplasm.
Dissociation: 15% HCl and 95% alcohol, unequal amounts.
Chicken liver homogenate is not equal to intact fresh chicken liver.
Starch cannot be used as a substrate to verify the effect of pH on enzymes because it hydrolyzes under acidic conditions. The same set of apparatus can be used; it must be washed and dried.
What is distributed at the bottom of the centrifuge tube is N15N15, not N15.
What rotates is the nosepiece, not the aperture.
Only cut 2-3mm for observing mitosis.
Centromere division, not breakage.
Young cells have only one layer, easy to observe.
By counting cells, one can analyze and calculate the length of each phase of the cell cycle.
Biological membranes include cell membranes, organelle membranes, nuclear membranes, etc., but not mucous membranes.
Observing undivided rectangular cells in the root tip, they may be root hair zone cells.
Proteins enter and exit the cell nucleus through the nuclear pore complex, not through biological membranes. Nucleotides enter and exit through the nuclear membrane, two layers of biological membranes.
When net photosynthetic rate equals respiration rate, photosynthetic rate is 2 times the respiration rate; the solid line may represent net photosynthetic rate.
Prokaryotic cells have no cytoskeleton, binary fission. Eukaryotic cells can undergo amitosis.
Higher plants achieve information exchange through plasmodesmata.
Requiring chemical potential energy generated by other ions moving down their concentration gradient to provide energy is also active transport. Energy comes from the concentration gradient. All active transport is coupled with oxygen. But if it only requires a carrier and goes down the concentration gradient, it is facilitated diffusion.
ATP is often coupled with oxygen.
One type of carrier protein can bind multiple ions, such as the sodium-potassium pump.
Observing ** fat does not require hydrochloric acid**.
Alcohol fermentation occurs in the cytosol.
Lipids all contain C, H, O; some have N, P.
Studying yeast cell respiration, both aerobic and anaerobic are experimental groups, contrasting each other, no control group.
Proteins that can hydrolyze ATP are enzymes, lowering the activation energy of chemical reactions, even if they don’t look like it.
CO₂ provides nutrients for plants.
Yeast: Heterotrophic facultative anaerobe.
──────────────────
2H₂O photolysis ——> 4H⁺ + O₂ + 4e⁻
NADP⁺ + H⁺ + 2e⁻ ——> NADPH
C₃ acid under the action of ATP and 1 portion of NADPH ——> C₃ sugar
──────────────────
Dextrin turns red upon meeting KI-I₂.
Identifying living cells: Staining method, osmotic water absorption/loss.
Pre-experiments cannot reduce experimental error.
Photorespiration consumes excess ATP, NADPH, and supplements CO₂.
Red blood cells do not consume oxygen.
Enzymes do not supply activation energy.
Isolated dark chloroplast experiments prove that the energy for ATP synthesis in photosynthesis does not come directly from light energy.
Nitrogen-containing components in chloroplasts: photosynthetic pigments, enzymes.
[H] contains chemical energy, as well as ATP, heat energy, etc.
[H] in cell respiration is NADH.
Heavy metal ions directly cause the destruction of protein spatial structure.
Large amounts of organic acids, H⁺ inside the vacuole.
Mitochondria are insulated from glucose.
Artificial chloroplasts have high efficiency: high enzyme efficiency.
¹⁵N and ¹⁸O have no radioactivity.
High temperature causes decomposition of photosynthetic pigments.
During the early development of oil seeds, oil is converted into soluble sugars, causing an increase in dry weight initially.
In rooting experiments, the pre-experiment needs a blank control; the culture solution does not need added sugars because photosynthesis synthesizes sugars.
NADPH and ATP provide phosphate groups, hydrogen, and energy.
Photosynthetic products are transported in the form of sucrose because non-reducing sugars are more stable.
Under 100% light intensity, the environmental factor limiting photosynthetic rate is CO₂ concentration.

Compulsory Book 2

Familial cardiomyopathy is autosomal single-gene; favism is sex-chromosome single-gene; vitamin D-resistant rickets is X-dominant; schizophrenia is polygenic. Single-gene genetic diseases are higher in adults than in adolescents.
S-type bacteria DNA expresses proteins in R-type bacteria, not capsular polysaccharides. In vivo transformation does not use isotope labeling.
Tobacco mosaic virus RNA alone can cause disease.
The two types of gene recombination correspond to results on different chromosomes and the same chromosome respectively.
After gene mutation, the number and arrangement order of base pairs in alleles are different. But the number and order of genes on the chromosome are the same.
Interphase chromosomes are filamentous, conducive to DNA replication and gene expression. Division phase, spiral, convenient for being pulled by spindle fibers, cannot be expressed at this time.
Single-gene diseases are mostly rare diseases. High incidence is not necessarily polygenic; it may be that the sample size is too small.
Spindle formation and nucleolus disintegration occur in prophase of mitosis. In metaphase, centromeres connect to spindle fibers from both poles.
Note that a female individual can only produce one type of gamete, but can have four daughter cells.
Cells do not express other genes when proliferating because they are filamentous. Such as the insulin gene.
In genetic diagrams, certain offspring might eliminate certain cases of autosomes, making their genotype have only one possibility.
Even pairs? Homologous chromosomes, so fertile.
DNA or RNA is not an antigen.
DNA breaks during crossing over.
If the small question stem condition in a genetics question seems to contradict the large question stem condition, consider lethality.
Pay attention to whether it is a whole chromosome deletion or a partial deletion.
Eukaryotic cell DNA replication requires helicase, ligase, and polymerase, three enzymes; expression does not require helicase.
Believe in yourself; those two chromosomes look different, there are no homologous chromosomes here.
Offspring of autosomal recessive do not have the disease; he can only be Aa.
Pay strict attention to the difference between “having a disease” and “only having a disease”, involving cases of having two diseases.
mRNA cannot be said to pass freely through nuclear pores. Processed inside the nucleus.
In pedigrees, chromosome number variations like XXY due to replication can lead to more pathogenic genes.
The formation of the cell membrane after division and the series of events caused by centromere division are relatively independent.
If a parent has no pathogenic gene but the offspring is sick, it may be dominant.
Deletion or duplication fragments may be analyzed within the scope of a pair of homologous chromosomes.
Be especially careful in Meiosis II, A, a caused by gene mutation.
Gene recombination belongs to heritable variation.
One species cannot be said to co-evolve with different phenotypes alone.
XO type cannot undergo meiosis.
S-type bacteria broken up and added, in vitro. Live S, in vivo. Mixed in liquid medium, observed on solid medium.
Gamete lethality generally does not exist in the case where half of the same genotype dies. In this case, consider that the parent might have two genotypes. The latter is more likely to be tested.
Some imprecise questions might color different chromosomes of a homologous pair the same, leading to the same color after crossing over.
The essence of unwinding the DNA double helix is breaking the hydrogen bonds between bases, not the phosphodiester bonds.
Don’t get the phenotype wrong; ask yourself what the phenotype is? Then write the genotype.
Mitosis chromosomes do not synapse because it is unnecessary; sister chromatids just separate. Diploid/haploid meiosis without homologous
chromosomes also do not synapse.
Highly spiraled during division, cannot transcribe.
Animal cells: centriole aster ray spindle; plant cells: polar spindle fiber spindle.
The pairing method of reverse transcription and transcription is the same. T-A and A-T have the same meaning.
Crick’s central dogma does not include reverse transcription.
Repetitive sequences are gene mutations because they are not repetitive genes.
Meiosis requires drawing at least three spindles.
Same genotype as somatic cells is possible in both prophase and anaphase; at this time, chromosome number may be n or 2n.
Natural selection changes gene frequency, not genotype frequency.
To determine sex based on the phenotype of genes on the X chromosome in offspring, the gene on the paternal side must be dominant relative to the maternal side.
Even if male and female phenotypes are the same, if lethality occurs, consider it being on the X chromosome. Because on autosomes, it would be the same as the parental genotype and couldn’t cause lethality.
Mitosis does not necessarily have homologous chromosomes, such as diploid/haploid mitosis.
Nucleic acid molecule partial hybridization diagram: It cannot be a primary transcript hybridizing with mature RNA, because identical cannot, only complementary can hybridize.
¹⁵N, ¹⁸O are stable isotopes.
May mutate into an existing gene.
AA and Aa are the same unless specified otherwise.
Whenever Mendel is mentioned simultaneously with chromosomes or genes, it is wrong.
Start from gametes.
Allodiploids cannot synapse, no offspring.
Genetic equilibrium: No natural selection, gene frequency and genotype frequency remain unchanged across generations.
In meiosis, if homologous chromosomes do not separate in the first division but separate in the second, it is almost equivalent to mitosis. For example, ZW parthenogenesis producing females. If only the second division doesn’t separate, then it doubles, parthenogenesis producing males.
During electrophoresis, if bands are the same, genes are generally the same. The type and number of gene bands in the electrophoresis diagram imply the number of alleles.
Consider two cases: A-B and A-b linkage.
As long as it is a nuclear gene, it conforms to Mendel’s laws.
Problem of calculating the proportion of cells undergoing crossing over: After crossing over, two pairs of alleles produce four types of genotype gametes; without crossing over, only two types, then set up equations and apply to the question stem.
The information is literally all the damn way in the question stem.
Write codons with 5’ and 3’.
Catalysis is not equal to regulation.
Pay attention to which parent is one individual and which is a group. One individual might not produce excessive gametes.
Reverse transcription cannot obtain the upstream fragment of the start point.
Genetics question genotypes: List them clearly, write them plainly.
What aligns in Metaphase I is n pairs of homologous chromosomes, not 2n chromosomes.
In Anaphase I, each chromosome is connected to spindle fibers from only one side.
Wire not tied in the middle doesn’t necessarily mean they are all metacentric chromosomes.
RNA replicase is a type of RNA polymerase.
Gene mutation produces alleles; a gamete generally has no alleles.
Changes in somatic cell nuclear material are heritable variations, but not necessarily inherited. Environmental changes are non-heritable variations; genetic material does not change.
Mitosis, amitosis, and meiosis can all have gene mutations and chromosomal aberrations.
Controlling proteins, controlling enzymes, controlling gene expression; three ways genes control traits.
Triploids may produce partially fertile gametes.
Independent assortment requires eukaryotic cells, sexual reproduction, nuclear genes. Alleles require chromosomes.
Mycoplasma is a prokaryotic cell.
The direction of replication, transcription, and translation is all from 5’ to 3’ of the coding strand or mRNA. That is, the template strand for replication and transcription is 3’ to 5’, while the newly produced strand or tRNA extends from 3’ to 5’.
tRNA phosphate group is at 5’, tRNA is a macromolecule. tRNA’s 3’ is short, 5’ is long.
rRNA, tRNA are not said to be obtained by transcription.
Sign of fertilization completion: two polar bodies appear between the zona pellucida and the egg cell membrane. Essence is the fusion of male and female pronuclei.
Must pay attention to whether the parents are homozygous.
Two pairs of genes, one trait; if one pair of genes masks the other pair, then a test cross cannot reflect the parental genotype because it is masked.
Read carefully: Dominant and recessive genes can both be cut into two segments.
RNA as a macromolecule, endocytosis and exocytosis.
The binding site of eukaryotic ribosomes and mRNA forms two tRNA sites, no more, no less, just two.
Haploid breeding colchicine can only treat seedlings; polyploidy can treat seedlings and germinating seeds because the former has no seeds. Use hydrochloric acid and alcohol. Pollen cannot divide, so colchicine cannot be used.
When chromosomes and nuclear DNA are both 2n, it could be G1, could be Anaphase II, then no homologous chromosomes.
Observe meiosis in locusts using male reproductive organs. Similarly, plants use anthers.
Crossing ZZ’ and ZW, offspring male:female is 1:2, indicating no normal Z does not develop.
Reciprocal cross results differ: Sex chromosome or cytoplasmic gene. Conversely, if the gene is on the sex chromosome (non-homologous region) or cytoplasmic gene, reciprocal crosses can be used to verify. If different, with XY (ZW) determination, F₁ female (male) is dominant.
Rous sarcoma virus is a retrovirus.
Green algae consume CO₂ dissolved in water, causing its pH to change.
Unequal lengths may be crossing over, not aberration.
Whatever is cultured in vitro is a haploid.
Prenatal testing cannot screen for gene mutations.
Distinguish between identical genes and alleles.
Continuous self-crossing screens for plants that can stably inherit.
X gene to Y belongs to chromosomal aberration.
Reciprocal cross same: XY homologous region or autosome.
The gene of the novel coronavirus is an RNA fragment with genetic effects.
Tetrads are half the number of chromosome pairs.
Haploid breeding = Anther culture + Chromosome doubling. Principle is cell totipotency. Polyploid breeding can obtain seedless tomatoes. Tetraploid watermelon is a new species. Anther culture is not chromosome number variation; it is totipotency. The latter is variation.
In vitro transformation experiment uses separation and purification methods to extract DNA, protein, and capsular substances separately. Not differential centrifugation.
Electrophoresis diagram, parent and offspring do not have identical bands, then the band gene is on X, because if autosomal, it must be inherited.
Electrophoresis diagram, heterozygous sick is dominant.
Non-homologous chromosomes, may have other situations, but consider translocation more.
Gel DNA molecule staining, UV lamp detection.
Two sperm cells produced simultaneously are generally identical.
Inserting a certain gene belongs to gene mutation.
Gene mutation often occurs during DNA replication.
Only fossils are the most direct and important evidence.
Loss leads to change in chromosome number.
Dominant homozygote broad-spectrum cross offspring are all dominant.
Offspring being good might be due to heterosis.
Need trait segregation ratio to determine if it is a recessive trait.
Treating seedlings to get polyploids can only be colchicine.
Number of tetrads = number of homologous chromosome pairs; note that in polyploids, homologous chromosomes might not be in pairs.
Note that mitosis images will not show synapsed tetrads, i.e., homologous chromosomes arranged together.

Elective Book 1

Insulin cannot inhibit the reabsorption of sugar by renal tubules.
Progesterone reduces uterine muscle excitability, promotes pregnancy, pregnancy-related.
Normal human bodies have mature B lymphocytes that recognize rabies; each B carries one type. Rabies virus can infect through tissue fluid.
Membrane potential is the same, pointer position is the same.
Non-attenuation requires many potentials together to be displayed. The meter usually measures the difference.
Pointer points to the same place inside and outside the membrane, deflects only once.
The function of the mica sheet is to prove the production of signaling molecules; conclusions are the same with or without light. There must be a control group to prove it.
Ovaries secrete progesterone. Follicle-stimulating hormone promotes sperm production in men.
Sweat glands secreting sweat is not controlled by humoral regulation.
Massive synthesis of glycogen is directly related to insulin concentration.
Insulin inhibits the conversion of amino acids to glucose. Promotes cells to uptake, store, and utilize glucose, absorb amino acids. Amino acids are not easily converted to glucose.
Macrophages participate not only in the second line but also in the third line.
Immunologically active substances refer to substances produced by immune cells or other cells that exert immune effects.
Vasodilation and increased permeability lead to edema.
Massive Ca2+ influx causes electrical signals. Acetylcholine binds to cell membrane receptors, causing depolarization.
Within a certain current intensity range, as the stimulation current increases, the muscle contraction amplitude increases because the nerve is composed of multiple nerve fibers; within a certain range, as stimulation current increases, the number of excited nerve fibers increases.
Gibberellin: early germination, starch saccharification. Abscisic acid maintains dormancy. Naphthaleneacetic acid/Gibberellin for grapes, Auxin for tomatoes. Cytokinin extends shelf life, delays leaf senescence; content decreases during division. Ethylene extends storage, promotes pineapple flowering.
The role of growth hormone is to stimulate protein synthesis and tissue growth, reduce sugar utilization, increase glycogen production, and promote fat decomposition.
Antibodies can be detected by drawing blood.
Intracellular fluid, 2/3.
Capillary walls have two unit membranes, i.e., four layers of phospholipid molecules.
Vitamin D promotes intestinal absorption of Ca, P.
Allergic reactions subside quickly.
Note that a certain substance might be externally applied, thus an external factor.
Synergy might be inhibiting more thoroughly.
Reducing calcium ion concentration in nerve cells may be unfavorable for signal transmission.
S-type DNA can penetrate R-type cell membranes.
Mature wheat seeds have a large amount of non-reducing sugar starch.
Hypothalamus controls biological rhythms, belongs to the brain.
S area damaged, vocal cords fine, can make sounds, animal sounds.
Effectors include efferent nerve endings.
Capillaries recover blisters. Plasma has more protein.
pH drop is caused by lactic acid, not pyruvate.
When protein content is low, inorganic salt content needs to be high to maintain osmotic pressure.
Even in strenuous exercise, human energy is mainly provided by aerobic respiration.
Hypertonic environment requires active transport to excrete salts from the body.
Under hypoglycemia, the ratio of insulin to glucagon decreases, liver glycogen decomposition strengthens, the rate of conversion of fats etc. to glucose accelerates.
Exocrine glands use ducts for secretion; endocrine glands use blood vessels.
Endothelial cells have one-way valves opening into the lumen at the edges, preventing lymph from flowing back into tissue fluid.
Clearing cancer cells embodies the immune surveillance function.
Old drugs and no drugs should both be ineffective.
Adenohypophysis, anterior pituitary, secretes growth hormone, tropic hormones, oxytocin, prolactin. Neurohypophysis, posterior pituitary, releases antidiuretic hormone, oxytocin. Hypothalamus secretes antidiuretic hormone. ?
Intensity not enough, sodium ion channels partially open.
TH cells can still proliferate and differentiate after receiving interleukin-1 from phagocytes. Activated TH and memory TH.
Multiple vaccinations produce more effector B and memory B, antibodies.
Neurotransmitters need to be between two cells.
Necrosis is not selective expression.
Fats cannot be converted into sugars in large quantities during hypoglycemia.
Senescent cells: cell membrane permeability decreases, cell nucleus volume increases, staining deepens, nuclear membrane folds inward, water decreases, become stubborn.
White hair: Melanin cannot be synthesized, tyrosinase activity decreases.
Nerve centers analyze and synthesize incoming information; pain not passing through a complete reflex arc is not a reflex.
Extracellular fluid osmotic pressure mainly comes from NaCl.
Synthesis of secretory proteins and lysosomal proteins starts on free ribosomes. Only secretory proteins are processed on the ER and Golgi.
Plant somatic hybridization is not equal to plant hybridization; the latter may lead to allopolyploidy, making chromosomes unable to synapse.
The hormone itself is often fine; in this case, consider receptor issues.
Colchicine treats seedlings.
Based on lymphokine content in normal people and patients, determine whether it is inhibitory or promoting, migration ability.
Diabetic organisms lower blood sugar, cannot convert, only glycosuria.
Cancer cells, surveillance and clearance.
Respiratory center in brainstem, thermoregulation in hypothalamus.
White blood cell apoptosis rate is faster than red blood cells.
Whatever enters the postsynaptic membrane is not a neurotransmitter.
Hypothalamus-Pituitary-X regulation axis, implies feedback regulation, like adrenaline.
Needle prick sensory neurons.
Root caps also synthesize ABA.
Plant absorption of inorganic salts: Active transport.
Action potential cannot be detected at the point of the nerve fiber given the stimulus.
Antigen refers more to the invader; B lymphocytes have receptors for only “one type of antigen”.
Alveoli do not belong to the internal environment.
Thyroid hormone and adrenaline are synergistic, promoting metabolism and heat production.
Low temperature: firstly causes vasoconstriction, secondly causes decreased cell membrane fluidity, thereby reducing absorption.
Adding a quilt for persistent high fever might be wrong in the question stem.
Plasma osmotic pressure is related to ions rather than proteins.
Adrenaline, glucocorticoids, glucagon, synergistic.
Glucocorticoids, synthesized in ER.
Carrier protein deformation does not consume energy.
Facilitated diffusion rate does not increase further after the concentration difference is large to a certain extent; cannot say it increases continuously.
Spinal cord blunt end output, sharp end input.
Thyroid hormone promotes protrusion and synapse formation.
Two substances competing for receptors often appears in high-level questions.
Changes in post-membrane ion channels trigger action potentials.
Capillary dilation, redness; large vessel wall permeability: edema, substances enter tissue fluid.
Synapse number, neuron order, and transmission speed are inversely proportional; synaptic delay. Because there is time at the synaptic junction.
The condition for conditioned reflex or not is whether the cerebral cortex participates.
Blood sugar concentration changes can directly stimulate islet cells.
Glucagon promotes liver glycogen decomposition, non-sugar substance conversion.
When cold: capillaries constrict, sweat glands constrict.
Blood pressure rise requires vasoconstriction.
Neurotransmitters have a smaller range of action than hormones; the answer is so.
Transmitted to the presynaptic membrane is electrical signal, then chemical signal, electrical signal.
Sympathetic nerves cause vasoconstriction and thus raise blood pressure.
The pituitary in the regulation axis is the anterior pituitary.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone receptors are on the cell membrane.
Viral vector vaccines, by entering cells, induce humoral immunity. But may also cause allergic reactions.
As signaling molecules, cytokines.

Elective Book 2

The prerequisite for natural selection is the universal existence of heritable variability in the population.
Dominant individuals become dominant groups under the combined action of reproduction and natural selection.
Global warming reduces agricultural viability.
Age pyramids and sex ratios are coupled.
Maintaining the quantity at around K/2 allows for the maximum sustainable catch.
S-curve growth rate decreases continuously, growth speed rises first then falls. J-curve growth rate is unchanged, growth speed rises continuously.
Even if rabbits eat their own feces, the assimilation amount does not belong to the rabbit.
Species with competitive advantages may lead to a decrease in community richness.
Vertical structure and sunlight are coupled.
Intake includes fecal amount plus assimilation amount; assimilation amount includes respiration loss and amount used for own growth, development, and reproduction; amount for growth, development, and reproduction includes flow to the next trophic level, flow to decomposers, and unutilized amount. What the arrow points out is the assimilation amount. Fecal amount belongs to the amount flowing to decomposers from the assimilation of the previous trophic level.
Primary succession: Glaciers melting, sandy land barren for years.
All heterotrophic organisms are secondary producers.
Ozone indicates short-wave radiation.
Energy transfer efficiency is calculated between two trophic levels. Cannot speak of energy transfer efficiency between two species.
Ecosystems have functions of energy flow, material cycling, information transmission, biological production, regulating climate, and conserving water sources.
Sludge etc. cannot directly provide energy for plants. Plants cannot utilize energy from organic matter.
Age structure is a statistical value of individual characteristics.
Edible, medicinal, agricultural, industrial, tourism appreciation, scientific research, etc., direct value; preventing water blooms, windbreak and carbon fixation, for other animals etc. Ecological is indirect value. Agricultural bumper harvest directly embodies indirect. Unknown, in the future is potential value, largest.
Predicting change trends is only through age structure.
Ecosystem includes components and trophic structure. Trophic structure includes food chains and food webs.
Pay attention to how long respiration has occurred; the question stem might treat in dark for 1h first, then light for 1h, at this time respiration is 2h.
Richness refers more to the community, not a single population.
Multiple organisms occupying different trophic levels, food chain is complex.
Plants do not have assimilation amount; for plants, it is called net primary production.
When intercropping vertically, the upper layer has a high light saturation point, the lower layer has a low light saturation point.
Design experiment, verify what is missing, supplement what is missing.
The first trophic level has a lower assimilation rate due to eating cellulose.
Biological nitrogen fixation is the most important way of nitrogen fixation.
Death during recapture does not affect. Sampling method for soil samples must be at different locations at the same depth. Dry funnel separation method utilizes soil animal avoidance of heat.
When writing ecosystem components, include abiotic components.
Producers are the cornerstone of the ecosystem. Indispensable components are decomposers.
Consumers accelerate material cycling and energy flow.
Parasitism is not predation.
Sex pheromones reduce birth rate, not sex ratio.
Horizontal lateral transport, active transport. Polar transport is merely from morphological upper end to lower end, also active transport.
Species living in the same environment have a competitive relationship because they all have to utilize nutrients and space.
Population density depends directly on birth rate and death rate.
Increasing genetic diversity requires mutation, not artificial selection.
Large numbers may lead to uniform distribution. Distribution in all regions does not count as uniform distribution.
Sudden increase in mortality of high age classes of normal perennial tall trees is caused by human activity.
Natural selection is the only driving force for adaptive evolution.
9×10⁷ should belong to the same trophic level as 1.1×10⁸.
Calculating energy transfer efficiency is calculating the quotient of assimilation amounts.
Wrapped in plastic wrap is the experimental group.
Polyploid breeding might not be able to self-cross to obtain homozygous excellent individuals.
Burning toilet paper pollutes the environment.
Ecological niches of organisms at the same trophic level do not highly overlap.
Sex attractants can only kill males.
Result of long-term adaptation between organisms and environment.
Crop rotation, interplanting, relay cropping do not apply the principle of material cycling.
Returning to the field through the belly realizes multi-path utilization of materials.
Community type changes with time: Succession.
Integrity principle of ecological engineering construction.
The key to increasing starch synthesis rate or similar technologies is to modify the key enzymes limiting the reaction rate.
Species richness is the number of species in a community. High richness is because the community structure is complex and food types are abundant.
Herbaceous plants can provide more food conditions and habitat space for arthropods.
Biomass is the accumulated amount of net primary production.
Possible reason for energy transfer efficiency being far below 10% is that the species is also preyed upon by other organisms.
Affecting community stability: Complex trophic structure, high species richness.
Territorial behavior is exclusive.
Basic pathway of water pollution: Dissolved oxygen decreases, anaerobes multiply, decomposition causes eutrophication, phytoplankton multiply.
Sampler sampling area not specified, depth 0-25cm.
Bt cotton belongs to chemical signals.
Investigate climatic conditions, human interference factors, prey population density, age composition, determine the environmental carrying capacity of a certain species, i.e., investigate various environmental conditions.
Important characteristic of different biological communities, species composition.
Flowering time is controlled by physical information light.
Urban forest communities, fragmented, enclosed.
Increase material and energy input.
Vertical direction -> Layered structure.
Insect pheromones belong to biological control using chemical information.
Reducing the number of dominant species can increase species richness.
Continuous increase cannot be said to be S-type.
Developed animal husbandry leads to sandstorms.
Note, species richness must have multiple species to be mentioned.

Elective Book 3

Malignant cell lines, immortal, no contact inhibition.
Collagen fibers between animal tissue cells are proteins.
Blastomeres or embryos after embryo splitting can be transplanted directly.
dNTP can provide energy for PCR amplification and provide raw materials.
Only methylene blue and diphenylamine stain DNA. Not electrophoresis indicators ensuring nucleic acid position.
Sperm for in vivo or in vitro fertilization needs to undergo capacitation. Oocytes in the ovary must be matured to Metaphase II to be fertilized.
Cloned frogs are oviparous, no embryo transfer needed.
When injecting into ascites, immunosuppressants must be injected.
Selective medium plus specific antibody test, obtain hybridoma cells with specific antibodies.
Transplant to vermiculite or perlite after hardening seedlings.
Formation of callus requires appropriate concentrations of BA and IAA.
Plant somatic hybridization is unrelated to the relative independence of gene structure.
To prevent microbial contamination, anthers are soaked in 75% ethanol for 30min. Hands are also this concentration.
The control is a blank medium. Or medium inoculated with an equal amount of sterile water. To judge whether the selective medium has a selective effect, since the variable is the medium, the control group uses inoculated full-nutrient medium, maintaining the principle of a single variable.
Autoclaving, pressure gauge pressure must drop to 0.
The core of microbial inoculation technology is preventing contamination by miscellaneous bacteria and ensuring culture purity.
Solid-liquid separation, precipitation, crystallization, drying.
Alcohol fermentation temperature 25, lower than acetic acid fermentation.
Medium for urea-decomposing bacteria requires glucose.
In vitro fertilization can only be performed in capacitation solution or specialized fertilization solution.
Blastocyst stage differentiates into inner cell mass and trophoblast.
Inner cell mass has totipotency.
Nutritional restriction culture of somatic cells before nuclear transfer is conducive to cell differentiation.
Explants must first dedifferentiate before liquid suspension culture.
RNA in cleavage stage cells is different from RNA contained in the fertilized egg.
Animals can only use microinjection.
Transgenic microorganisms become ideal molecular factories for synthesizing proteins.
Changing protein structure is protein engineering.
Congo red checks for cellulose-decomposing bacteria, trypan blue stains dead cells blue.
Shake when sampling.
Lack of light, test-tube seedlings are yellow.
Before cutting or inoculating redifferentiated clustered seedlings, no further disinfection is needed because they are already under sterile conditions.
Fewer amino acids at the end, stop codon appears early.
DNA molecule copies n times, use 2ⁿ⁺¹-2 primers.
Prerequisite for amplification is having a known nucleotide sequence of the target gene.
In fruit wine fermentation, if low, extend time; if higher than 30°C, cannot shorten time, must cool down.
Acetic acid fermentation requires passing sterile air.
Spread multiple plates, only one did not show colonies, then the medium is fine, caused by spreader not cooling after flame sterilization.
Hybridomas require HAT selective medium screening, clonal culture, antibody detection, three steps.
During gradient dilution, if 0.1mL is taken in the last step, it only represents another 10-fold dilution for the last step for calculating per mL. But the last step doesn’t count as dilution.
Protein engineering cannot directly modify proteins; it must be achieved by modifying genes.
Pipette for dipping, spreader for spreading.
Before importing recombinant plasmids, place in low temperature low concentration CaCl₂.
5% CO₂, maintain pH.
Explant disinfection cannot use mixed disinfectant; first 75% alcohol, then 10% sodium hypochlorite, then sterile water.
DNA is dissolved with 2mol/L NaCl, extracted with 95% cold alcohol. Because proteins dissolve in alcohol.
Animal cell culture media do not need autoclaving; they have natural organic components.
PCR principle is DNA in vitro replication.
Denaturation: Break hydrogen bonds between DNA double strands to form two single strands. Annealing: Allow 2 primers to bind to their respective complementary DNA single strands, forming hydrogen bonds. Extension: Taq enzyme uses single-stranded DNA as a template, guided by primers, using dNTPs, to replicate complementary DNA from 5’ to 3’.
Haploid breeding embodies male gamete totipotency. Principle is not chromosomal aberration.
Sticky ends and recognition sequences are not the same thing.
EDTA inhibits DNAase activity, SDS dissociates nucleoproteins.
Auxin and cytokinin equal in dedifferentiation.
Cloning has no in vitro fertilization.
Colonies are coupled with solid media.
After obtaining the target gene, amplify via PCR, identify via electrophoresis (or DNA sequencing), then recover the DNA fragment containing the target gene from the gel, cut the target gene and plasmid with restriction enzymes, then connect with DNA ligase.
After using Agrobacterium, i.e., whenever plants use antibiotics, the purpose is to kill Agrobacterium.
Preparation of specific proteins: Monoclonal antibodies.
With wine as raw material, can only make vinegar.
Protein engineering directly modifies genes.
As long as the upstream and downstream sequences of the gene are the same, the primers are consistent.
Leave some space in the alcohol fermentation bottle: Provide oxygen, yeast multiplies massively; prevent overflow when vigorous.
Switch from alcohol fermentation to acetic acid fermentation: Inoculate Acetobacter; pass in sterile air; raise temperature to 30-35.
Medium: Water, inorganic salts, nitrogen source, carbon source.
80℃ water bath heating: Kill non-heat-resistant microorganisms.
Screening for amylase production: KI-I₂.
High-yield strains: Transgenic breeding, mutation breeding, protoplast fusion.
Antibiotic (or other reagents used for screening) sensitivity test.
Transgenic recipients must have strong regeneration ability, genetic stability.
Genetic stability detection: Observe cell nucleus morphology or metaphase chromosome morphological characteristics and number.
High annealing temperature, primers self-ligate or ligate to each other, causing no bands in electrophoresis.
Gene expression: Coupled proteins.
Fertilized eggs need to be cultured into early embryos before being implanted into the uterus to complete implantation.
Embryonic stem cells do not easily differentiate.
Freezing or high temperature causes cells to rupture, nutrients flow out.
Cellulase and pectinase need filter sterilization.
Replication inside E. coli is also called amplification.
Long-term preservation: Glycerol.
Trypsin is used for contact inhibition in animal cell culture.
Protoplast cytokinesis is also different from animal cells: former needs cell plate, latter invaginates.
Pour plates after cooling to about 50℃ after sterilization.
0 bands in electrophoresis is the target bacterium.
Inner cell mass belongs to blastocyst.
PCR cooling is for primers to bind to complementary DNA strands; continuing at 72 degrees is for daughter strands to extend completely.
Animal cell culture, no agar used.
HIV is different from bacteriophages; S can also be brought in, P can also be on the cell membrane.
Animal cell embryo culture solution, not synthetic medium.
Adsorbent, adsorption fermentation, for separation and purification.
Gel pores -> Molecular sieve.
Large-scale culture of plant cells is called plant tissue culture, not expansion culture.
Restriction enzymes cannot cut outside the promoter and terminator; priority is higher than cutting off the resistance gene. Also note that recognition sequences cannot be the same.
Fermentation might require adding alkaline buffer.
Primers must avoid base complementarity between primers of different segments.
Low temperature, drying, hypoxia, lack of nutrients, adding protective agents, to preserve strains.
You often fail to fill in disinfection, and liquid suspension/oscillating culture; the latter also has the function of activation.
Obtain single colonies: Spread plate method.
Eggs from fallopian tubes used directly; eggs from ovaries need artificial culture.
Count must be between 30-300; counting along edges is difficult so cannot spread to edges.
Differential centrifugation applies to all organelles.
Microorganisms as recipient cells: Low cost, easy operation, fast reproduction, simple structure and genetic material.
Electrophoresis migration rate: Relative molecular mass, charge, shape, gel concentration, voltage.
If the experiment requires counting, only the dilution spread plate method can be used.
LB medium is bacterial medium; yeast commonly uses potato sucrose agar medium.
Young cells have strong division ability, low differentiation degree, easy to operate.
Dilution spread plate method cannot use just one pipette.